4 Logos (Evidence, Support)
Andrew Gurevich
Arguing from Reason (Logos)
In this chapter, we begin to study the methods of academic argument analysis, starting with the foundational element of the three-fold Greek approach: Logos (Logic, Support, Data)
For most of us, arguments are things we try to avoid. When we do engage them, often our emotions and opinions get the better of us and the discussion quickly becomes a competition, with everyone clamoring to be the “winner.” But in academic argument, we must learn to set our opinions and emotions aside and develop ways to use critical thinking skills to evaluate arguments according to objective, authoritative principles of critique and analysis. We must let the “evidence” speak for itself whenever possible. A valid argument requires thoughtful, coherent, and relevant reasons for its own existence. A strong argument is only as good as the support it offers in defense of itself. Thoughtful speculation and conjecture is an important part of academic thinking because creative thinking and collaborative problem-solving often require us to go beyond the status quo and make new connections and explore new possibilities. But we must always be clear what part of our argument is supported by clear, reliable, relevant, and authoritative evidence and what part is based in well-reasoned speculation. And we must always be willing to go where a” good faith” reading of the evidence takes us.
Remember, not all arguments require the same kind of support, but all arguments do require some kind of support. The proper ways in which we determine if an argument is well supported start with asking questions about what kind of argument is being made, what is the size or relative importance of the overall claim, what are the stakes and for whom are the risks and rewards of accepting or rejecting this idea/argument, and what other evidence is present (or absent) that would help further substantiate the claim? Different kinds of arguments will require different kinds of support. Some arguments will require more factual evidence and hard data, others can be driven by anecdotes, personal accounts, interviews, and stories. Often, we will need a variety of support to properly develop a complex claim. Keep this in mind as you move forward in the materials.
Furthermore, many arguments will not be settled simply by finding the “right” evidence. Many will disagree as to what is the most reliable information to support a given argument. Others will rightly point out that some arguments are based in moral reasoning, tradition, and ethical considerations and not simply by consulting “the experts.” Indeed, in many cases, improper appeals to “the evidence” can be used to silence dissent and marginalize opposing voices, rather than calling them in and considering what they may have to offer. When gathering and using evidence, we should always try to avoid these rhetorical mistakes. Strong evidence can and should speak for itself, but we must always be willing to consider alternative points of view and the testimony and experience of those who live outside of our own recognized bubbles of authority.
First, let’s have a brief look at all three components of the ancient Greek model of rhetorical appeals and persuasion:
- Consult the Purdue OWL link: Aristotle’s Rhetorical Situation
- Here is a handout about all three of the ancient Greek forms of persuasion: Ethos_Logos_Pathos
- View the Powerpoint: Logos, Pathos & Ethos
- View the short video: Ethos, Pathos, and Logos – Rhetoric
- View the short video: Structuring an Argument
- View the short video: How to Craft an Argument
Logos
The word Logos means “logic” or “support” or “evidence.”
- When someone asks, “What is your argument based on?” They are asking for logical support.
- When you offer relevant evidence, expert testimony, facts, and other rational “support” for your argument, you are using Logos.
- Proper use of Logos in an argument will offer support that is: sufficient, relevant, and representative of the best available evidence.
- But rational support of an argument is much more complex than it may seem at first (as we will see when we examine all of the logical fallacies, for instance). We need to be disciplined and not make up our minds too soon.
- View the handout: Logos
- View the following video: What is Reason (Logos)?
- View the following video: How to Use Reason and Logic in Persuasion